Iron deficiency anemia: Impact on women’s reproductive health

Iron deficiency anemia (IDA) is a global public health
problem that affects developed and undeveloped countries, with important
consequences on individual health and quality of life with social and economic
repercussions. This condition is highly prevalent among women during their reproductive
age. Heavy menstrual bleeding (HMB), pregnancy state, and postpartum are the
major conditions determining IDA. However, despite the high prevalence and
impact on quality of life, IDA among fertile age women remains underdiagnosed
and undertreated.

An iron-deficient state causes a number of adverse health
consequences, affecting all aspects of the physical and emotional well-being of
women. Iron is an essential element involved in a variety of vital functions,
including oxygen transport, deoxyribonucleic acid synthesis, metabolic energy,
and cellular respiration.

Iron homeostasis is the result of balanced cooperation
between functional compartments (erythroid and proliferating cells), uptake and
recycling systems (enterocytes and splenic macrophages), and storage elements
(hepatocytes). So far, iron deficiency (ID) and IDA are used to refer to
similar conditions. They each carry their own independent risks and, therefore,
deserve individual attention. In fact, anemia will appear as the ID continues
untreated.

Absolute ID is defined as the reduction of total body iron
storage (mostly in macrophages and hepatocytes) with subsequent deficient iron
supply to tissues. Low hemoglobin defines anemia. Serum ferritin correlates
with iron storage (in absence of inflammatory conditions), whereas the iron
saturation of serum transferrin is a major indicator of systemic iron
homeostasis.

Among women of childbearing age, the prevalence of anemia globally
is estimated at 30% and, in this sense, women constitute a particularly
vulnerable group, since the prevalence and severity of this disease are greater
than those described for men worldwide. Women are particularly vulnerable to
IDA causing a high symptom burden and disability. The identification of causes
of ID/IDA is pivotal and an early diagnosis of ID before the onset IDA is
crucial to provide an appropriate treatment.

The causes of anemia in young women are varied and can be
multifactorial. However, the most prevalent cause is absolute ID and among
fertile age women, HMB, defined as an excessive menstrual blood loss that
interferes with a woman’s quality of life, is the leading cause of ID. Heavy
menstrual bleeding frequently is underreported and a relevant number of women
are unaware of the condition, as 46% of them have never consulted a doctor for
HMB symptoms. This may be attributable to inaccurate individual self-perception
of HMB and normalization of symptoms.

In fact, menstruation is a monthly uterine bleeding,
regarded as a sign of reproductive health; however, when characterized by
excessive bleeding, it may reflect the presence of uterine disorders.
Endometrial and myometrial mechanisms underlying menstrual bleeding have
hormonal, cellular, and molecular components. The exact chronologic order of
how the endometrium sheds and repairs is not yet known. However, what is known
is that the perimenstrual endometrium changes and displays signs of tissue
edema, increased endometrial blood flow, vessel permeability, and fragility, as
well as a large influx of leucocyte traffic. Collectively, this is seen as an
inflammatory event and the resolution of inflammation is crucial to limit
endometrial injury and control menstrual blood loss.

In addition, effective vasoconstriction not only physically
reduces the blood flow to the endometrium in the perimenstrual window, thereby
reducing menstrual blood loss, it also reduces the amount of oxygenated blood
perfusing the endometrium, and therefore, creating a hypoxic environment which
in turn underpins tissue remodeling and repair. The final mechanism to control
menstrual bleeding is concomitant endometrial repair and regeneration.

Heavy menstrual bleeding represents a clinical entity with
different structural and nonstructural underlying causes from menarche to
menopause, resulting in iron depletion and consequent iron-deficient anemia.
Uterine fibroids (UFs), adenomyosis, endometrial polyps, cesarean scar defects,
and uterine vascular malformations are the main gynecologic causes of IDA in women
during reproductive life.

In 30%–40% of cases, UFs cause a range of symptoms depending
on their location and size. The most troublesome complaint necessitating
treatment during the reproductive lifespan is HMB, associated or not with
pain). The relationship between HMB and UFs remains poorly characterized;
however, increased endometrial surface area, the presence of dilated blood
vessels on the myoma surface, increased uterine contractility, and peristalsis
and changes in expression of potential angiogenic factors seem to represent some
of the involved mechanisms. In the presence of myometrial causes of HMB, such
as UFs or adenomyosis, it is unknown whether aberrations in endometrial
function and, thus, the abnormal phenotype of HMB occurs as a result of a
primary endometrial disorder, that is, independent of the myometrial cause.

Pregnancy is a physiologic state requiring an increased
request of iron and often associated with IDA. The most critical situation
related to pregnancy is the postpartum hemorrhage, the most common cause of
maternal mortality. The patient blood management is the strategic model to
prevent and/or treat this critical condition. Patient blood management employs
a multidisciplinary and multimodality approach, which provides for timely
screening for and treatment of anemia and optimization of hemoglobin level,
minimization of blood loss and optimization of hemostasis, and harnessing and
optimization of the physiologic adaptation to anemia.

The ideal scenario in the 21st century is to assess and
treat ID before the emergence of anemia. This includes the proper treatment of
HMB and the management of ID during all stages of pregnancy. The contributions
of UFs, adenomyosis, uterine polyps, and cesarean scar defect in causing HMB
should be considered and approached adequately by medical or surgical treatment.
An effective treatment involves correcting the anemia, correcting the ID and
solving their etiologies that may not always be possible. Over time intravenous
iron has been and is much more widely adopted and used because of the greater
safety profile of the latest generation compounds, their rapid effects and the
absence of gastrointestinal toxicity.

By implementing this approach, it will result in reducing or
avoiding patients’ living with years of disabilities. This also will improve
quality of life for these women and decrease the large number (40%) of women
entering pregnancy with ID. By doing so, it will ensure an optimal fetus
development and improve pregnancy outcome, thus avoiding unneeded transfusions.

The goal of the present Views and Reviews is to raise
awareness among patients and clinicians of the relevance of menstruation-related
disorders as a risk for ID and IDA, other than pregnancy and postpartum. A
multidisciplinary approach, including the collaboration between general
practitioner, gynecologist, and hematologist, is recommended to facilitate a
comprehensive and individualized approach to women’s care.

Source: Felice Petraglia and Marie Madeleine Dolmans; Fertility
and Sterility, Vol. 118, No. 4

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2022.08.850